The history of Non Commission Officer ( NCO)

A non-commissioned officer is also known as an NCO or Noncom, is an enlisted member of an armed force. NCO is given authority by a commissioned officer. In general, the NCO corps includes all the grades of sergeant and, in some militaries, corporals and warrant officers and in naval some or all grades of petty officer. If we look at the history of NCO in United States, it began in 1775, with the birth of the Continental Army. As the years went by the American political system, disregard for the aristocracy, social attitudes, and the vast westward expanses further removed the U.S. Army noncommissioned officer from his European counterparts and created exclusively an American noncommissioned officer. During the early days of American Revolution, little standardization of NCO ditties or responsibilities existed. From the American Revolution to World War II, there were a lot of transformations that happened. For instance, the noncommissioned officer received his promotion from the regimental commander. Besides, entire careers were often spent within one regiment and if a man was transferred from one regiment to the next he did not take his rank with him. The General in Chief of the Army was always required to give permission to be transferred noncommissioned officer from one regiment to another which was rarely done. In the year 1825 the first attempt was made to establish a systematic method for noncommissioned officer selection. The selection of regimental and company noncommissioned officers remained the privilege of the regimental commander. Regimental commanders were expected to accept the company commander's recommendations for company NCOs unless there were overriding considerations. During the last half of the 19th Century the increase of technology accompanied modernization greatly that affected the NCO Corps. Besides, the number of NCO ranks grew rapidly and each new introduction of technology created another pay grade. Though till the 19th century the duties of NCOs were not clearly defined, in the last half of the 19th Century the duties of the noncommissioned officer were clearly defined. The five or six pages of instructions, provided by von Steuben's Regulations for the Order and Discipline of the Troops of the United States in 1778 grew to 417 pages when the Noncommissioned Officers Manual was printed in 1909. Today as the Noncommissioned Officer Education System continues to grow, the history and tradition combines with skill and ability to prepare for battle. A NCO retains the duties and responsibilities given to him by von Steuben in 1778, and these have been built upon to produce the soldier of the present day (Arms n.pag, 1989). A good NCO serves as administrative or training personnel and as advisors to the officer corps. Therefore they need to be faithful and ethically strong. Their most important function is as a link between the ‘common soldier' and the (commissioned) officer. Senior NCOs are also often responsible for giving on-the-job training to the junior officers. Therefore a combination of knowledge, skills and attitude is essential for a NCO. Moral competence include five main components- the ability to recognize a moral dimension; The ability to define the moral dimension of a situation or dilemma and to describe which values are at issue; The ability to communicate the judgement towards others effectively; The will to act upon one’s decision; and To be accountable for one’s actions (Verweij 28). The Non-Commissioned Officer is considered as the backbone of the Armed Forces. The NCO is expected to be a commander, trainer and combat leader. He also serves as a role model for his team of soldiers. Therefore, a good NCO need to have strong moral values (Wortel and Schoenmakers n.pag, 2006). An NCO must lead by example and train his team of soldiers to a high level of proficiency and readiness in their team skills. Therefore it can be said that an NCO's job is to get things done without having to be told first by a commissioned officer. Work Cited Arms, L.R. A Short History of the NCO (1989) U.S. Army Sergeants Major Academy, Command and General Staff College. 27 October 2007. ;http://www-cgsc.army.mil/carl/resources/csi/arms/arms.asp; Verweij D.E.M., Het belang van Militaire Ethiek voor de Krijgsmacht in Carrà © 7/8 (2005) p.28. Wortel, E.M. and Schoenmakers, J.P.M Teaching Military Ethics, J-SCOPE January 26-27, 2006,   27 October 2007. ;http://www.usafa.edu/isme/JSCOPE06/Wortel-Schoenmakers06.html; ;

A Jack of All Trades

They say that Asian countries, especially those belonging to the third world, have low education standards and don’t speak English at all.   I’d like to take this opportunity to disprove that myth.I’m a full-blood middle class Indian, born in New Delhi, India, to an army officer and a nurse.   I’d say that I’m very fortunate because my parents were able to put me in a good school and was able to study until the 8th grade.   It is true that India belongs to the third world country due to poverty; so a lot of families can’t afford to put their children into nice schools.   There are a number of good schools in India and I was fortunate enough to have studied in one.   The intensive curriculum in my school developed my IQ especially in the field of science and mathematics.When my family and I moved to Boston, Massachusetts in 2004, my schoolmates found it truly astounding that Indians could speak and write well in English too.   This is for the fact that English is India’s second language.   There are a lot of dialects in India alone, but that doesn’t mean English is not a language spoken there.They found how studious and passionate I am with my studies and how I passed with flying colors too.   On top of that, they were pretty amazed that a poindexter like me is actually a sports fanatic too.   I was able to combine studies and sports, doing well in both at the same time.   In fact, I joined the soccer and tennis teams and was able to significantly contribute to the success of both teams. I even lost 30 lbs. out of it.  I remember how I used to doubt I’d be qualified to join the teams, but I got in after the tryouts.   It is, indeed, very hard for students to combine school and sports at the same time.   I’d say I was very proud to show my schoolmates that an Indian like me can excel in a lot of fields, thus showing that the education standard in India shouldn’t be underestimated.   The more I join teams and mingle with schoolmates, the more I learn about American culture.Eventually, my dad found a new job in Austin, Texas, so my family and I had to relocate.   I went to Westwood high school, which is one of the best schools in the US, and I found out that the curriculum there challenged me intellectually and physically.I decided to quit sports when I went to junior high because I took up 5 AP classes.   I took up AP Chemistry, AP English, AP Physics, AP Statistics and AP Computer Science classes.   The standard of the school is very high, so is the level of difficulty.   At first, I found the curriculum too challenging, but I came to realize the advantages of finishing at Westwood high school.I realized that the intensive curriculum could work to my advantage in the future, so I pursued studying well.   I even compared Westwood high school to my previous school in Massachusetts.   Thus, I am very proud to have finished with flying colors in Westwood high school.All the experiences I’ve gone through had made me a jack of all trades.   I was able to prove I can excel in all fields I wish to pursue.   The culture I grew up with in India had given me special traits that made me go through the hardest challenges in life with ease and gratitude.My parents were always there to help me, and because of this, I’m forever indebted.   I want to make them prouder, so I am taking this opportunity to explore greater chances of earning a degree that could help me in my desired profession one day.I am also very grateful that America has given opportunities to Asians like me for better education, and pursuing excellence in my studies will not only make America proud they have produced graduates like me, but will also make my motherland, India, proudest.

Product Life Cycle Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Product Life Cycle - Assignment Example 1. Assumptions of the analysis were not all correct as at the time the research was carried out. Foremost is the fact that very few disposable diapers are utilized every week, on a standard basis, then reusable diapers their impact to the environment may be overstated. Secondly, even though the concerned researchers made an assumption that incineration is the most preferred alternative of waste management, this concept is not globally accepted. This, therefore, means that not everybody is in agreement with this kind of waste disposal.There is a considerable opposition that exists to the utilization of incineration which at times could prelude this option of waste management from taking over as the basic method of waste disposal. Presently, several disposable diapers are usually landfilled. This, therefore, means that the impact to the environment of disposable diapers that can be attributed to waste disposal could greatly differ from the estimates provided by the researchers. Being the leader of Arthur D.Little project team, I would not necessarily recommend any particular diaper. This is because, from the data provided, disposables use more raw materials than reusables. On the other hand, reusables consume more water and energy resources that are non-renewable. Globally it is hard to choose one diaper instead of the other. In regions where solid waste is the most burning environmental problem such as New York reusables could definitely be given a nod. Consequently, regions with water scarcity such as California, disposables, in this case, are deemed the best choice for the environment. 2. To be able to give a correct estimate of the reusable diapers’ cost to consumers, valuation of the home labor required to clean reusables should at least be at the minimum wage; since this wage rate is a representation of the lowest estimate of the incurred opportunity cost.

Computerized physician order entry Term Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Computerized physician order entry - Term Paper Example CPOE, permits order entry at point of entry or in offsite locations. The system also decreases transcription and handwriting errors. Further, CPOE allows for error checking of incorrect or duplicate tests or doses for patients. It streamlines healthcare institutions posting of charges and inventory (Hussein, Zaidise, & Linn, 2013).CPOE represents an operational tool that provides evidence based and real-time decision support for the physicians. Various stakeholders such as the Government, physicians, community, and employers need to have a coordinated plan for the evaluation and adoption of CPOE (Muzyk, 2013). This can help to increase the rate of adoption of the technology by hospitals. Therefore, this paper will discuss the computerized physical order entry as a system that is important in the running of the hospital. During the late eighties, hospitals started implementing CPOE. By 1999, various hospitals had computerized most of their medications (Cohn, 2011). Utilization of CPOE is in all orders of inpatient units like referrals, tests, patient care, and medications. Adoption of CPOE faced some barriers. Initially there was lack of involvement of clinicians in CPOE adoption, substandard reliability, and functionality of technology (Kudyba, 2010). There was lack of standardization of some of the medical terminologies. Most hospitals also faced inadequate long-term financial commitment in the implementation. Poor planning is also a barrier to the implementation of CPOE. At the same time, sociological barriers in the use of CPOE exist. Shifts in physical work practices persist due to the increased time that physicians take to enter orders. CPOE implementation impact in the resources, commitment, and efforts is great. Technical properties: The electronic process provides health workers with a chance to enter orders electronically. Physicians are in a good position to manage and control the results of ordered entries. Companies encourage adoption of

Information system in business Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Information system in business - Essay Example This paper will also outline how this technology supports that business area and the benefits they bring both to that business area and the organization as a whole. Data can be defined as collection or gathering of unrefined facts representing events taking place in organizations or the physical environment prior to they have been structured and managed into a structure that people can identify and make use of it. In addition, data can contain text, numbers, images and videos. On the other hand, information is collection of data that have been changed into a structure that is important and functional to human beings (Shelly, Cashman, & Vermaat, 2005, p. 6; Norton, 2001, p. 4; Laudon & Laudon, 1999, p. 7). A system is a group of related elements that work together to carry out a job in order to achieve a goal. Any organization or business that makes use of information technology will have a computer-based information system encompassing software, hardware, data/information, actions, workers, and communications setups. These components work together to offer management with information for running the business (Hutchinson & Sawyer, 2000, p. 9.3). (Shelly, Cashman, & Vermaat, 2005, p. 620), explains information system as a collection of hardware, software, data, workers, and methods that work in collaboration to turn out functional and valuable information†. An information system helps out in every day, short-range, temporary, and long range activities of users. Various examples of users consist of store clerks, sales representatives, accountants, and supervisors, managers of construction projects, executives, and customers (Shelly, Cashman, & Vermaat, 2005, p. 620). According to (Turban, Leidner, McLean, & Wetherbe, 2005, p. 18), an information system collects, processes, stores, evaluates, and distributes information for a particular function. Similar to any other system, an information system consists of inputs (such as instructions and data)

Using the I Can Problem Solve Program Research Proposal

Using the I Can Problem Solve Program - Research Proposal Example ICPS Program teaches the critical thinking skills children require to solve problems on their own. After receiving this program, children learn to generate solution and alternative solutions to problems. They learn to go one step ahead and think of the situation that will arise once the decision is taken. Ability to plan properly the steps to be taken to reach the main goal is developed on their own. How? Here, students are helped to solve problems on their own by using real life situations and using fun and exciting methods such as using colorful pictures, puppets etc. Discussions among groups of students and role plays are also done during the program to help them understand and come up with various solutions and alternative solutions to situational problems .They are then allowed to find out for themselves which would be the best solution to the problem considering the consequences. The program teaches students basic skills and problem solving language. They learn word concepts, how to identify problems, come up with solutions, find out factors behind problems, generate alternate solutions and also study consequences. Children learn to be sensitive. They recognize not only one’s own feelings but also others. Children tend to be empathetic and understand problems others face from their point of view. And hence they are able to respond to others problems and influence th eir responses in turn. Children become better decision makers. Many role plays are conducted during this program enacting problematic situations. They are requested to come up with solutions and alternative solutions to such situational problems. And they finally choose the best solution on their own after studying the consequences to their decisions. This enables them to manage and solve everyday problems more effectively. Relating lessons learned to other areas, extension activities, activity sheets and other interactive activities are included.

Canadian coporate law Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Canadian coporate law - Essay Example property rights protection and regulation is necessarily founded on the concept that ‘increased innovation† makes it possible for the production of: Canada subscribes to these concepts and its array of intellectual property rights laws adequately prove this. However, in an article written by Myra J. Tawfik, Canada by its ascension to the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) has been forced to reconcile its domestic intellectual property rights laws with those of its trade partners under NAFTA3. This paper examines Canada’s intellectual property laws and how its obligations under NAFTA have influenced its developments as discussed by Myra Tawfik in the article Intellectual Property Laws in Harmony with NAFTA: The Courts as Mediators Between the Global and the Local. Cumulatively, Canadian intellectual property rights are contained in several difference types of property which include, trademarks, patents, copyright, â€Å"industrial designs, integrated circuit topography and plant breeders’ rights.†4 The breadth of the Canadian Intellectual property rights protection encapsulate the exclusive right of the licensed owner of intellectual property to permit others to use the protected property and to take steps to prevent unauthorized use of the protected property.5 Essentially a trade mark is a unique identifying element such as words and/or designs that distinguishes the product from any other.6 Canadian intellectual property laws recognize two distinguishing features of note, the â€Å"distinguishing guise† and the â€Å"certification mark.†7 A distinguishing guise generally refers to the manner in which the product is presented to the public. In Daniel Shear’s example, the unique shape of the Coca Cola bottle is a distinguishing guise.8 Likewise the certification mark is a distinguishing mark used to identify a product which meets minimum standards.9 Under Canadian law, a trade mark can be protected under the tort of passing off

Generic and specific skills Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Generic and specific skills - Assignment Example Skill defines the ability to execute an undertaking to a predefined level of competency. A range of generic skills is important in the construction industry. Generic skills, which include but are not limited to computing skills, communication, ICT skills, problem solving skills, and team working skills are essential qualifications valued by employers (UK Commission for Employment and Skills, 2014, 1). They supplement the special and technical skills of employees. The varieties of generic and special skills are available in the construction market, which also includes service delivery and supply of materials. Most companies often offer training in generic skills, but specific skills are normally acquired in learning institutions. In China, the construction market constitutes a large percentage of the country’s GDP. The Chinese construction market is growing at a significantly rapid rate. Specific skills such as technological skills are in demand in the construction industry. Design engineers and architects, for instance, require special skills to come up with designs of houses and roads, and examine the structural components of construction. Despite the high unemployment levels, employers still complain of skill deficits (Klosters, 2014, 9). Staffs with generic skills are often subcontracted to work on contractual basis. Unfortunately, development of managerial skills has not been efficient because systems of management largely remain the same (Ahmad and Ryan, n.d., 1). The country’s type of economy creates several jobs in the construction industry, hence the increase of several construction companies. Even so, construction enterprises and design institutes have shown little interest in develop ing skills required in the construction industry. Even so, the competition between Beijing, Hong Kong and Shanghai means that the industry has potential. Both India and China have shown interest in investing in their

IT Project Management Ch7 Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

IT Project Management Ch7 - Assignment Example The main benefit of using its cost management feature is that it allows project managers to manage all the project related information at a single place. For instance, all the project related information such as resources, activities, schedule and costs can be managed in a single application at the single location. As a result, it becomes easy for them to integrate project activities with associated cost and schedule (Schaffhauser, 2010; Microsoft Corporation, 2015; Schwalbe, 2012). Every project manager uses a specific project management tool in order to manage their project management activities. For the cost management, they use specific criteria and some firms have their own software tools that allow them to calculate costs according to their available resources. In some cases, cost estimates are developed and maintained separately from the project plan. Though, MS Project 2010 encompasses all the features that are necessary to maintain a complete project cost management process, but it is still a new component for the majority of project managers, and it can take some time to get complete expertise (Schwalbe, 2012). The project completion opens a door for learning by measuring the performance and improving on the basis of mistakes. To evaluate the performance of any project, the Earned Value Management is quite a significant evaluation practice used in project management (Schwalbe, 2012). A study conducted by Dr. Song that is sponsored by the PMI (Project Management Institute) and CPM (College of Performance Management), is purposed at assisting the project managers to understand and measure the extent of practicing the Earned Value Management technique in project management as well as its practitioners’ base. This study’s important aspect is to deliver a cross sectional perspective of most of the recent EVM practices by surveying more than 600 project management experts. For getting a more useful and practical insight

Quality Improvement Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Quality Improvement - Research Paper Example The foundational frameworks of quality improvement include Quality Circles (where a group of employees interact to identify and resolve problems to ensure quality), Sig Sigma (which is about ensuring high quality and attaining cost-efficiency), Benchmarking (when a company compares its products or services against competitors’ market offerings), Reduced Cycled Time (complete business process in shortest possible time) and Continuous Improvement ( process and product innovation to ensure differentiation and high quality premium products). There are differences among the definitions given by healthcare stakeholders such as Managers, Clinicians, Patients, Industry analysts and Human research specialists because of personal experiences, attitudes, behaviors, education, past experiences, skills and lifestyles. Indeed, a patient if provided all major healthcare services under one-roof in a center will express that quality of healthcare is higher. Similarly, the professionals and clinicians will express improvement in quality only when they observe any developments and advancements in technology or computerized systems, increase in facilities within a center or hospital and improvements in immediate or emergency services all across the country etc. The reason behind it is the fact that computerized systems help in accurate diagnose that in turn improves quality of services provided to patients. Similarly, more facilities at healthcare centers and emergence of new centres enhance the reach thereby enabling customers to cons ult any nearby center for healthcare. Quality improvement is not only been adopted by core profit-maximizing business enterprises but also in Healthcare industry. The reason being the fact that top quality to patients by clinicians, physicians and others etc. will result in alleviating threats of major chronic and acute illnesses that in turn will reduce financial burden on government and concerned authorities.

Miss.Independent Essay Example for Free

Miss.Independent Essay Abstract We survey the phenomenon of the growth of ? rms drawing on literature from economics, management, and sociology. We begin with a review of empirical ‘stylised facts’ before discussing theoretical contributions. Firm growth is characterized by a predominant stochastic element, making it di? cult to predict. Indeed, previous empirical research into the determinants of ? rm growth has had a limited success. We also observe that theoretical propositions concerning the growth of ? rms are often amiss. We conclude that progress in this area requires solid empirical work, perhaps making use of novel statistical techniques. JEL codes: L25, L11 Keywords: Firm Growth, Size Distribution, Growth Rates Distribution, Gibrat’s Law, Theory of the Firm, Diversi? cation, ‘Stages of Growth’ models. ? I thank Giulio Bottazzi, Giovanni Dosi, Ha? da El-Younsi, Jacques Mairesse, Bernard Paulr? , Rekha Rao, e Angelo Secchi and Ulrich Witt for helpful comments. Nevertheless, I am solely responsible for any errors or confusion that may remain. This version: May 2007 †  Corresponding Author : Alex Coad, Max Planck Institute of Economics, Evolutionary Economics Group, Kahlaische Strasse 10, D-07745 Jena, Germany. Phone: +49 3641 686822. Fax : +49 3641 686868. E-mail : [emailprotected] mpg. de 1 #0703 Contents 1 Introduction 3 2 Empirical evidence on ? rm growth 2. 1 Size and growth rates distributions . . . . 2. 1. 1 Size distributions . . . . . . . . . . 2. 1. 2 Growth rates distributions . . . . . 2. 2 Gibrat’s Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2. 2. 1 Gibrat’s model . . . . . . . . . . . 2. 2. 2 Firm size and average growth . . . 2. 2. 3 Firm size and growth rate variance 2. 2. 4 Autocorrelation of growth rates . . 2. 3 Other determinants of ? rm growth . . . . 2. 3. 1 Age . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2. 3. 2 Innovation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2. 3. 3 Financial performance . . . . . . . 2. 3. 4 Relative productivity . . . . . . . . 2. 3. 5 Other ? rm-speci? c factors . . . . . 2. 3. 6 Industry-speci? c factors . . . . . . 2. 3. 7 Macroeconomic factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 4 4 5 9 9 11 14 15 18 18 19 23 25 26 28 29 3 Theoretical contributions 3. 1 Neoclassical foundations – growth towards an ‘optimal size’ . . . . 3. 2 Penrose’s ‘Theory of the Growth of the Firm’ . . . . . . . . . . . 3. 3 Marris and ‘managerialism’ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3. 4 Evolutionary Economics and the principle of ‘growth of the ? tter’ 3. 5 Population ecology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 31 32 34 35 38 . . . . . . . 39 39 40 43 44 45 46 49 5 Growth of small and large ? rms 5. 1 Di? erences in growth patterns for small and large ? rms . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5. 2 Modelling the ‘stages of growth’ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51 51 53 6 Conclusion 56 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 Growth strategies 4. 1 Attitudes to growth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4. 1. 1 The desirability of growth . . . . . . . . . . . 4. 1. 2 Is growth intentional or does it ‘just happen’ ? 4. 2 Growth strategies – replication or diversi? cation . . . 4. 2. 1 Growth by replication . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4. 2. 2 Growth by diversi? cation . . . . . . . . . . . . 4. 3 Internal growth vs growth by acquisition . . . . . . . 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . #0703 1 Introduction The aim of this survey is to provide an overview of research into the growth of ? rms, while also highlighting areas in need of further research. It is a multidisciplinary survey, drawing on contributions made in economics, management and also sociology. There are many di? erent measures of ? rm size, some of the more usual indicators being employment, total sales, value-added, total assets, or total pro? ts; and some of the less conventional ones such as ‘acres of land’ or ‘head of cattle’ (Weiss, 1998). In this survey we consider growth in terms of a range of indicators, although we devote little attention to the growth of pro? ts (this latter being more of a ? nancial than an economic variable). There are also di? erent ways of measuring growth rates. Some authors (such as Delmar et al. , 2003) make the distinction between relative growth (i. e. the growth rate in percentage terms) and absolute growth (usually measured in the absolute increase in numbers of employees). In this vein, we can mention the ‘Birch index’ which is a weighted average of both relative and absolute growth rates (this latter being taken into account to emphasize that large ? rms, due to their large size, have the potential to create many jobs). This survey focuses on relative growth rates only. Furthermore, in our discussion of the processes of expansion we emphasize positive growth and not so much negative growth. 1 In true Simonian style,2 we begin with some empirical insights in Section 2, considering ? rst the distributions of size and growth rates, and moving on to look for determinants of growth rates. We then present some theories of ? rm growth and evaluate their performance in explaining the stylised facts that emerge from empirical work (Section 3). In Section 4 we consider the demand and supply sides of growth by discussing the attitudes of ? rms towards growth opportunities as well as investigating the processes by which ? rms actually grow (growth by ‘more of the same’, growth by diversi? cation, growth by acquisition). In Section 5 we examine the di? erences between the growth of small and large ? rms in greater depth. We also review the ‘stages of growth’ models. Section 6 concludes. 2 Empirical evidence on ? rm growth To begin with, we take a non-parametric look at the distributions of ? rm size and growth rates, before moving on to results from regressions that investigate the determinants of growth rates. 1 2 For an introduction to organizational decline, see Whetten (1987). See in particular Simon (1968). 3 #0703 2. 1 Size and growth rates distributions A suitable starting point for studies into industrial structure and dynamics is the ?rm size distribution. In fact, it was by contemplating the empirical size distribution that Robert Gibrat (1931) proposed the well-known ‘Law of Proportionate E? ect’ (also known as ‘Gibrat’s law’). We also discuss the results of research into the growth rates distribution. The regularity that ? rm growth rates are approximately exponentially distributed was discovered only recently, but o? ers unique insights into the growth patterns of ? rms. 2. 1. 1 Size distributions The observation that the ? rm-size distribution is positively skewed proved to be a useful point of entry for research into the structure of industries. (See Figures 1 and 2 for some examples of aggregate ? rm size distributions. ) Robert Gibrat (1931) considered the size of French ? rms in terms of employees and concluded that the lognormal distribution was a valid heuristic. Hart and Prais (1956) presented further evidence on the size distribution, using data on quoted UK ? rms, and also concluded in favour of a lognormal model. The lognormal distribution, however, can be viewed as just one of several candidate skew distributions. Although Simon and Bonini (1958) maintained that the â€Å"lognormal generally ? ts quite well† (1958: p611), they preferred to consider the lognormal distribution as a special case in the wider family of ‘Yule’ distributions. The advantage of the Yule family of distributions was that the phenomenon of arrival of new ? rms could be incorporated into the model. Steindl (1965) applied Austrian data to his analysis of the ? rm size distribution, and preferred the Pareto distribution to the lognormal on account of its superior performance in describing the upper tail of the distribution. Similarly, Ijiri and Simon (1964, 1971, 1974) apply the Pareto distribution to analyse the size distribution oflarge US ? rms. E? orts have been made to discriminate between the various candidate skew distributions. One problem with the Pareto distribution is that the empirical density has many more middlesized ? rms and fewer very large ? rms than would be theoretically predicted (Vining, 1976). Other research on the lognormal distribution has shown that the upper tail of the empirical size distribution of ? rms is too thin relative to the lognormal (Stanley et al. , 1995). Quandt (1966) compares the performance of the lognormal and three versions of the Pareto distribution, using data disaggregated according to industry. He reports the superiority of the lognormal over the three types of Pareto distribution, although each of the distributions produces a best-? t for at least one sample. Furthermore, it may be that some industries (e. g. the footwear industry) are not ? tted well by any distribution. More generally, Quandt’s results on disaggregated data lead us to suspect that the regu4 #0703 larities of the ? rm-size distribution observed at the aggregate level do not hold with sectoral disaggregation. Silberman (1967) also ? nds signi? cant departures from lognormality in his analysis of 90 four-digit SIC sectors. It has been suggested that, while the ? rm size distribution has a smooth regular shape at the aggregate level, this may merely be due to a statistical aggregation e? ect rather than a phenomenon bearing any deeper economic meaning (Dosi et al, 1995; Dosi, 2007). Empirical results lend support to these conjectures by showing that the regular unimodal ? rm size distributions observed at the aggregate level can be decomposed into much ‘messier’ distributions at the industry level, some of which are visibly multimodal (Bottazzi and Secchi, 2003; Bottazzi et al. , 2005). For example, Bottazzi and Secchi (2005) present evidence of signi? cant bimodality in the ? rm size distribution of the worldwide pharmaceutical industry, and relate this to a cleavage between the industry leaders and fringe competitors. Other work on the ? rm-size distribution has focused on the evolution of the shape of the distribution over time. It would appear that the initial size distribution for new ? rms is particularly right-skewed, although the log-size distribution tends to become more symmetric as time goes by. This is consistent with observations that small young ? rms grow faster than their larger counterparts. As a result, it has been suggested that the log-normal can be seen as a kind of ‘limit distribution’ to which a given cohort of ? rms will eventually converge. Lotti and Santarelli (2001) present support for this hypothesis by tracking cohorts of new ? rms in several sectors of Italian manufacturing. Cabral and Mata (2003) ? nd similar results in their analysis of cohorts of new Portuguese ? rms. However, Cabral and Mata interpret their results by referring to ? nancial constraints that restrict the scale of operations for new ? rms, but become less binding over time, thus allowing these small ?rms to grow relatively rapidly and reach their preferred size. They also argue that selection does not have a strong e? ect on the evolution of market structure. Although the skewed nature of the ? rm size distribution is a robust ? nding, there may be some other features of this distribution that are speci? c to countries. Table 1, taken from Bartelsman et al. (2005), highlights some di? erences in the structure of industries across countries. Among other things, one observes that large ? rms account for a considerable share of French industry, whereas in Italy ? rms tend to be much smaller on average. (These international di? erences cannot simply be attributed to di? erences in sectoral specialization across countries. ) 2. 1. 2 Growth rates distributions It has long been known that the distribution of ? rm growth rates is fat-tailed. In an early contribution, Ashton (1926) considers the growth patterns of British textile ? rms and observes 5 US 86. 7 69. 9 87. 9 16. 6 5. 8 Western Germany 87. 9 77. 9 90. 2 23. 6 11. 3 78. 6 73. 6 78. 8 13. 9 17. 0 France Italy 93. 1 87. 5 96. 5 34. 4 30. 3 74. 9 8. 3 UK Canada Denmark 90. 0 74. 0 90. 8 30. 2 16. 1 92. 6 84. 8 94. 5 25. 8 13. 0 Finland Netherlands 95. 8 86. 7 96. 8 31. 2 16. 9 86. 3 70. 5 92. 8 27. 7 15. 7 Portugal Source: Bartelsman et al. (2005: Tables 2 and 3). Notes: the columns labelled ‘share of employment’ refer to the employment share 6 26. 4 17. 0 33. 5 10. 5 12. 7 13. 3 13. 0 6. 5 16. 8 Total economy 80. 3 39. 1 32. 1 15. 3 40. 7 40. 5 30. 4 27. 8 18. 3 31. 0 Manufacturing 21. 4 11. 5 35. 7 6. 8 12. 0 12. 7 9. 9 5. 3 11. 4 Business services Ave. No. Employees per ? rm of ? rms with fewer than 20 employees. 20. 6 33. 8 12. 1 46. 3 33. 4 33. 0 41. 9 39. 8 Business services Total economy Manufacturing Share of employment (%) Business services Total economy. Manufacturing Absolute number (%) Table 1: The importance of small ? rms (i. e. ?rms with fewer than 20 employees) across broad sectors and countries, 1989-94 #0703 #0703 1 Pr 1998 2000 2002 0. 1 0. 01 0. 001 1e-04 -4 -2 0 s 2 4 6 Figure 1: Kernel estimates of the density of ?rm size (total sales) in 1998, 2000 and 2002, for French manufacturing ? rms with more than 20 employees. Source: Bottazzi et al. , 2005. Figure 2: Probability density function of the sizes of US manufacturing ? rms in 1997. Source: Axtell, 2001. that â€Å"In their growth they obey no one law. A few apparently undergo a steady expansion.. . With others, increase in size takes place by a sudden leap† (Ashton 1926: 572-573). Little (1962) investigates the distribution of growth rates, and also ? nds that the distribution is fat-tailed. Similarly, Geroski and Gugler (2004) compare the distribution of growth rates to the normal case and comment on the fat-tailed nature of the empirical density. Recent empirical research, from an ‘econophysics’ background, has discovered that the distribution of ? rm growth rates closely follows the parametric form of the Laplace density. Using the Compustat database of US manufacturing ? rms, Stanley et al. (1996) observe a ‘tent-shaped’ distribution on log-log plots that corresponds to the symmetric exponential, or Laplace distribution (see also Amaral et al. (1997) and Lee et al. (1998)). The quality of the ? t of the empirical distribution to the Laplace density is quite remarkable. The Laplace distribution is also found to be a rather useful representation when considering growth rates of ? rms in the worldwide pharmaceutical industry (Bottazzi et al. , 2001). Giulio Bottazzi and coauthors extend these ? ndings by considering the Laplace density in the wider context of the family of Subbotin distributions (beginning with Bottazzi et al., 2002). They ? nd that, for the Compustat database, the Laplace is indeed a suitable distribution for modelling ? rm growth rates, at both aggregate and disaggregated levels of analysis (Bottazzi and Secchi 2003a). The exponential nature of the distribution of growth rates also holds for other databases, such as Italian manufacturing (Bottazzi et al. (2007)). In addition, the exponential distribution appears to hold across a variety of ? rm growth indicators, such as Sales growth, employment growth or Value Added growth (Bottazzi et al. , 2007). The growth rates of French manufacturing ? rms have also been studied, and roughly speaking a similar shape was observed, although it must be said that the empirical density was noticeably fatter-tailed than the Laplace (see Bottazzi et al. , 2005). 3 3 The observed subbotin b parameter (the ‘shape’ parameter) is signi? cantly lower than the Laplace value of 1. This highlights the importance of following Bottazzi et al. (2002) and considering the Laplace as a special 7 #0703 1998 2000 2002 1998 2000 2002 1 prob. prob. 1 0. 1 0. 01 0. 1 0. 01 0. 001 0. 001 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 -2 -1. 5 -1 conditional growth rate -0. 5 0 0. 5 1 1. 5 2 conditional growth rate. Figure 3: Distribution of sales growth rates of French manufacturing ? rms. Source: Bottazzi et al. , 2005. Figure 4: Distribution of employment growth rates of French manufacturing ? rms. Source: Coad, 2006b. Research into Danish manufacturing ? rms presents further evidence that the growth rate distribution is heavy-tailed, although it is suggested that the distribution for individual sectors may not be symmetric but right-skewed (Reichstein and Jensen (2005)). Generally speaking, however, it would appear that the shape of the growth rate distribution is more robust to disaggregation than the shape of the ?rm size distribution. In other words, whilst the smooth shape of the aggregate ? rm size distribution may be little more than a statistical aggregation e? ect, the ‘tent-shapes’ observed for the aggregate growth rate distribution are usually still visible even at disaggregated levels (Bottazzi and Secchi, 2003a; Bottazzi et al. , 2005). This means that extreme growth events can be expected to occur relatively frequently, and make a disproportionately large contribution to the evolution of industries. Figures 3 and 4 show plots of the distribution of sales and employment growth rates for French manufacturing ?rms with over 20 employees. Although research suggests that both the size distribution and the growth rate distribution are relatively stable over time, it should be noted that there is great persistence in ? rm size but much less persistence in growth rates on average (more on growth rate persistence is presented in Section 2. 2. 4). As a result, it is of interest to investigate how the moments of the growth rates distribution change over the business cycle. Indeed, several studies have focused on these issues and some preliminary results can be mentioned here. It has been suggested that the variance of growth rates changes over time for the employment growth of large US ? rms (Hall, 1987) and that this variance is procyclical in the case of growth of assets (Geroski et al. , 2003). This is consistent with the hypothesis that ? rms have a lot of discretion in their growth rates of assets during booms but face stricter discipline during recessions. Higson et al. (2002, 2004) consider the evolution of the ? rst four moments of distributions of the growth of sales, for large US and UK ?rms over periods of 30 years or more. They observe that higher moments of the distribution of sales growth rates have signi? cant cyclical patterns. In case in the Subbotin family of distributions. 8 #0703 particular, evidence from both US and UK ? rms suggests that the variance and skewness are countercyclical, whereas the kurtosis is pro-cyclical. Higson et al. (2002: 1551) explain the counter-cyclical movements in skewness in these words: â€Å"The central mass of the growth rate distribution responds more strongly to the aggregate shock than the tails. So a negative shock moves the central mass closer to the left of the distribution leaving the right tail behind and generates positive skewness. A positive shock shifts the central mass to the right, closer to the group of rapidly growing ? rms and away from the group of declining ? rms. So negative skewness results. † The procyclical nature of kurtosis (despite their puzzling ? nding of countercyclical variance) emphasizes that economic downturns change the shape of the growth rate distribution by reducing a key parameter of the ‘spread’ or ‘variation’ between ? rms. 2. 2 Gibrat’s Law. Gibrat’s law continues to receive a huge amount of attention in the empirical industrial organization literature, more than 75 years after Gibrat’s (1931) seminal publication. We begin by presenting the ‘Law’, and then review some of the related empirical literature. We do not attempt to provide an exhaustive survey of the literature on Gibrat’s law, because the number of relevant studies is indeed very large. (For other reviews of empirical tests of Gibrat’s Law, the reader is referred to the survey by Lotti et al (2003); for a survey of how Gibrat’s law holds for the services sector see Audretsch et al. (2004). ) Instead, we try to provide an overview of the essential results. We investigate how expected growth rates and growth rate variance are in? uenced by ? rm size, and also investigate the possible existence of patterns of serial correlation in ? rm growth. 2. 2. 1 Gibrat’s model Robert Gibrat’s (1931) theory of a ‘law of proportionate e? ect’ was hatched when he observed that the distribution of French manufacturing establishments followed a skew distribution that resembled the lognormal. Gibrat considered the emergence of the ?rm-size distribution as an outcome or explanandum and wanted to see which underlying growth process could be responsible for generating it. In its simplest form, Gibrat’s law maintains that the expected growth rate of a given ? rm is independent of its size at the beginning of the period examined. Alternatively, as Mans? eld (1962: 1030) puts it, â€Å"the probability of a given proportionate change in size during a speci? ed 9 #0703 period is the same for all ? rms in a given industry – regardless of their size at the beginning of the period. † More formally, we can explain the growth of ? rms in the following framework. Let xt be the size of a ? rm at time t, and let ? t be random variable representing an idiosyncratic, multiplicative growth shock over the period t ? 1 to t. We have xt ? xt? 1 = ? t xt? 1 (1) xt = (1 + ? t )xt? 1 = x0 (1 + ? 1 )(1 + ? 2 ) . . . (1 + ? t ) (2) which can be developed to obtain It is then possible to take logarithms in order to approximate log(1 + ? t ) by ? t to obtain4 t log(xt ) ? log(x0 ) + ? 1 + ? 2 + . . . + ? t = log(x0 ) + ?s (3) s=1 In the limit, as t becomes large, the log(x0 ) term will become insigni? cant, and we obtain t log(xt ) ? ?s (4) s=1 In this way, a ? rm’s size at time t can be explained purely in terms of its idiosyncratic history of multiplicative shocks. If we further assume that all ? rms in an industry are independent realizations of i. i. d. normally distributed growth shocks, then this stochastic process leads to the emergence of a lognormal ? rm size distribution. There are of course several serious limitations to such a simple vision of industrial dynamics. We have already seen that the distribution of growth rates is not normally distributed, but instead resembles the Laplace or ‘symmetric exponential’. Furthermore, contrary to results implied by Gibrat’s model, it is not reasonable to suppose that the variance of ? rm size tends to in? nity (Kalecki, 1945). In addition, we do not observe the secular and unlimited increase in industrial concentration that would be predicted by Gibrat’s law (Caves, 1998). Whilst a ‘weak’ version of Gibrat’s law merely supposes that expected growth rate is independent of ?rm size, stronger versions of Gibrat’s law imply a range of other issues. For example, Chesher (1979) rejects Gibrat’s law due to the existence of an autocorrelation structure in the growth shocks. Bottazzi and Secchi (2006a) reject Gibrat’s law on the basis of a negative relationship between growth rate variance and ? rm size. Reichstein and Jensen (2005) reject Gibrat’s law 4 This logarithmic approximation is only justi? ed if ? t is ‘small’ enough (i. e. close to zero), which can be reasonably assumed by taking a short time period (Sutton, 1997). 10 #0703after observing that the annual growth rate distribution is not normally distributed. 2. 2. 2 Firm size and average growth Although Gibrat’s (1931) seminal book did not provoke much of an immediate reaction, in recent decades it has spawned a ? ood of empirical work. Nowadays, Gibrat’s ‘Law of Proportionate E? ect’ constitutes a benchmark model for a broad range of investigations into industrial dynamics. Another possible reason for the popularity of research into Gibrat’s law, one could suggest quite cynically, is that it is a relatively easy paper to write. First of all, it has been argued that there is a minimalistic theoretical background behind the process (because growth is assumed to be purely random). Then, all that needs to be done is to take the IO economist’s ‘favourite’ variable (i. e. ?rm size, a variable which is easily observable and readily available) and regress the di? erence on the lagged level. In addition, few control variables are required beyond industry dummies and year dummies, because growth rates are characteristically random. Empirical investigations of Gibrat’s law rely on estimation of equations of the type: log(xt ) = ?+ ? log(xt? 1 ) + (5) where a ? rm’s ‘size’ is represented by xt , ? is a constant term (industry-wide growth trend) and is a residual error. Research into Gibrat’s law focuses on the coe? cient ?. If ? rm growth is independent of size, then ? takes the value of unity. If ? is smaller than one, then smaller ? rms grow faster than their larger counterparts, and we can speak of ‘regression to the mean’. Conversely, if ? is larger than one, then larger ? rms grow relatively rapidly and there is a tendency to concentration and monopoly. A signi?cant early contribution was made by Edwin Mans? eld’s (1962) study of the US steel, petroleum, and rubber tire industries. In particular interest here is what Mans? eld identi? ed as three di? erent renditions of Gibrat’s law. According to the ? rst, Gibrat-type regressions consist of both surviving and exiting ? rms and attribute a growth rate of -100% to exiting ? rms. However, one caveat of this approach is that smaller ? rms have a higher exit hazard which may obfuscate the relationship between size and growth. The second version, on the other hand, considers only those ?rms that survive. Research along these lines has typically shown that smaller ? rms have higher expected growth rates than larger ? rms. The third version considers only those large surviving ? rms that are already larger than the industry Minimum E? cient Scale of production (with exiting ? rms often being excluded from the analysis). Generally speaking, empirical analysis corresponding to this third approach suggests that growth rates are more or less independent from ? rm size, which lends support to Gibrat’s law. 11 #0703 The early studies focused on large ? rms only, presumably partly due to reasons of data availability. A series of papers analyzing UK manufacturing ? rms found a value of ? greater than unity, which would indicate a tendency for larger ? rms to have higher percentage growth rates (Hart (1962), Samuels (1965), Prais (1974), Singh and Whittington (1975)). However, the majority of subsequent studies using more recent datasets have found values of ? slightly lower than unity, which implies that, on average, small ? rms seem to grow faster than larger ? rms. This result is frequently labelled ‘reversion to the mean size’ or ‘mean-reversion’. 5 Among a large and growing body of research that reports a negative relationship between size and growth, we can mention here the work by Kumar (1985) and Dunne and Hughes (1994) for quoted UK manufacturing ? rms, Hall (1987), Amirkhalkhali and Mukhopadhyay (1993) and Bottazzi and Secchi (2003) for quoted US manufacturing ? rms (see also Evans (1987a, 1987b) for US manufacturing ? rms of a somewhat smaller size), Gabe and Kraybill (2002) for establishments in Ohio, and Goddard et al. (2002) for quoted Japanese manufacturing ? rms. Studies focusing on small businesses have also found a negative relationship between ? rm size and expected growth – see for example Yasuda (2005) for Japanese manufacturing ? rms, Calvo (2006) for Spanish manufacturing, McPherson (1996) for Southern African micro businesses, and Wagner (1992) and Almus and Nerlinger (2000) for German manufacturing. Dunne et al. (1989) analyse plant-level data (as opposed to ? rm-level data) and also observe that growth rates decline along size classes. Research into Gibrat’s law using data for speci? c sectors also ? nds that small ? rms grow relatively faster (see e. g. Barron et al. (1994) for New York credit unions, Weiss (1998) for Austrian farms, Liu et al. (1999) for Taiwanese electronics plants, and Bottazzi and Secchi (2005) for an analysis of the worldwide pharmaceutical sector). Indeed, there is a lot of evidence that a slight negative dependence of growth rate on size is present at various levels of industrial aggregation. Although most empirical investigations into Gibrat’s law consider only the manufacturing sector, some have focused on the services sector. The results, however, are often qualitatively similar – there appears to be a negative relationship between size and expected growth rate for services too (see Variyam and Kraybill (1992), Johnson et al. (1999)) Nevertheless, it should be mentioned that in some cases a weak version of Gibrat’s law cannot be convincingly rejected, since there appears to be no signi? cant relationship between expected growth rate and size (see the analyses provided by Bottazzi et al. (2005) for French manufacturing ? rms, Droucopoulos (1983) for the world’s largest ? rms, Hardwick and Adams (2002) for UK Life Insurance companies, and Audretsch et al. (2004) for small-scale Dutch services). Notwithstanding these latter studies, however, we acknowledge that in most cases a negative relationship between ? rm size and growth is observed. Indeed, 5 We should be aware, however, that ‘mean-reversion’ does not imply that ? rms are converging to anything resembling a common steady-state size, even within narrowly-de? ned industries (see in particular the empirical work by Geroski et al. (2003) and Ce? s et al. (2006)). 12 #0703 it is quite common for theoretically-minded authors to consider this to be a ‘stylised fact’ for the purposes of constructing and validating economic models (see for example Cooley and Quadrini (2001), Gomes (2001) and Clementi and Hopenhayn (2006)). Furthermore, John Sutton refers to this negative dependence of growth on size as a ‘statistical regularity’ in his revered survey of Gibrat’s law (Sutton, 1997: 46). A number of researchers maintain that Gibrat’s law does hold for ? rms above a certain size threshold. This corresponds to acceptance of Gibrat’s law according to Mans? eld’s third rendition, although ‘mean reversion’ leads us to reject Gibrat’s Law as described in Mans? eld’s second rendition. Mowery (1983), for example, analyzes two samples of ? rms, one of which contains small ? rms while the other contains large ? rms. Gibrat’s law is seen to hold in the latter sample, whereas mean reversion is observed in the former. Hart and Oulton (1996) consider a large sample of UK ? rms and ? nd that, whilst mean reversion is observed in the pooled data, a decomposition of the sample according to size classes reveals essentially no relation between size and growth for the larger ? rms. Lotti et al. (2003) follow a cohort of new Italian startups and ? nd that, although smaller ? rms initially grow faster, it becomes more di? cult to reject the independence of size and growth as time passes. Similarly, results reported by Becchetti and Trovato (2002) for Italian manufacturing ? rms, Geroski and Gugler (2004) for large European ? rms and Ce? s et al. (2006) for the worldwide pharmaceutical industry also ? nd that the growth of large ? rms is independent of their size, although including smaller ? rms in the analysis introduces a dependence of growth on size. It is of interest to remark that Caves (1998) concludes his survey of industrial dynamics with the ‘substantive conclusion’ that Gibrat’s law holds for ? rms above a certain size threshold, whilst for smaller ? rms growth rates decrease with size. Concern about econometric issues has often been raised. Sample selection bias, or ‘sample attrition’, is one of the main problems, because smaller ? rms have a higher probability of exit. Failure to account for the fact that exit hazards decrease with size may lead to underestimation of the regression coe? cient (i. e. ?). Hall (1987) was among the ? rst to tackle the problem of sample selection, using a Tobit model.

Strategic Plan Part Ii Swott Analysis Business Essay

Strategic Plan Part Ii Swott Analysis Business Essay Starting a new business or company the owner must have a strategy plan that focuses on the companys strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, before opening the doors. Understanding the business SWOTT will help the development of the strategy plan and prepare for any unexpected problems that may occur within the internal and external environment. A SWOTT analysis particularly will allow Jeans rare find books, to audit, plan, and focus on key issues that come up in the business. External Trends Janes rare find books consider and selected the economic forces, competitive analysis forces, competitive external forces, and technological forces for the external analysis. . Competitive analysis Rays books, and Blakes wholesales books warehouse are the market competitive analysis focuses on the companys (Jeans rare find books) competitors has decreased. Blakes wholesale books warehouse controls 20% of the market and Rays books control 10% of the market. Jeans rare find books have computer kiosks set up throughout the store, which give them the competitive advantage over the competition. Selecting a book can be done with the touch of a button that will give a history of the book, first and last owner, and where the book is located. In addition, the store will have programs set up for high school and college students alike that will enable them to rent out available books using his or her school code, and students identification at a price that fits his or her budget. Strength: Offering rare books people cannot find, availability of signed, and first edition books of rare authors who people or individuals have not seen in years. Weakness: Opportunities: The ability to advertise and connect with people looking for a book. Threat: Larger store better technology Trends: The trend shows improvement and the ability to change and move forward. Economics Economics facilitates the decision making in the business considering the cost of products and services. Economic factors concern the nature and direction of the economy in which a firm operates. Because consumption patterns are affected by the relative affluence of various market segments, each firm must consider economic trends in the segments that affect its industry (Pearce Robinson, 2009, p. 94, Para 3). Strength: Good economic conditions increases, the budget, and improve the shareholder confidence. Weakness: fluctuation in economic conditions weakens and affects the companys operations. Opportunities: A boost in economic growth helps the expansion, and growth of the company. Threats: Slow tourist season affect the business. Technological forces Knowledge in technology helps a business in the daily process on filing documents, receiving suppliers, helping staff members, and customers. The correct knowledge of technology decreases the day-to-day business processing of paperwork. According to Pearce and Robinson, (2009) a technological development may have an unexpected result on a companys environment. It may produce refined products or greatly shorten the expected life of a production facility (p. 98, Para 6). Strength: Good technological skills help in operating a day-to-day business. Weakness: technological breakdown of computer systems can put a business on whole causing loss of profits and customers. Opportunities: The advance and upgrades of new technologies today will make it easier to track merchandise in less time and will help satisfy suppliers, and customers. Threats: The use of old and outdated technology systems will reduce the satisfaction, demands of suppliers, and customers thereby losing cash flow. Trends: Technological advancement enables the company to create an atmosphere customers appreciate, and expect without outside interference. Internal Forces and Trends Strengths and weaknesses internal analysis targets internal factors, which supplies a business advantages and disadvantages in meeting the needs of its market (My Strategic Plan, 2010). Businesses examine internal operating trends for less expensive ways to control business. Outsourcing unnecessary business performances or using the Internet to create sales is ordinary classes of internal trend (Vitez, n.d.). The selected internal forces and trends for the Jeans Books are culture, and resource. Culture Culture is a force and trend that includes business related social culture, and diversity within the workplace. Businesses that efficiently establish an internal culture based on common support, respect, and teamwork will recognize increased output and a better focus on customer service (Richards Media, n.d.). Strength: Diversity helps in reaching the competitive advantage as it serves in sharing beliefs, morals, and behavior that boost the businesss image. Weakness: Old culture or unfavorable culture of the business reduces the idea of business expansion. Opportunities: In todays work environment the company can easily grow and increase its market share offering new ideas on selling books within publishing industry Threats: A company without diversity may affect the business processing. Trends: Diversity, developing a business environment with a diverse group of people and individuals the company will have more value in the market Resources Resources from different publishing houses from around the country and overseas will generate more business for the company, and boost a loyal customer base. Strength: Connecting with the customers, having the right book for the right customer Weakness: Delays and unattainable recourses; competitors using similar concepts to sell books. Opportunities: To collaborate with publishing house from around the world. Threats: Competitors using similar concepts to sell books Trends: Young adult books, and children books. Issues and Opportunities The issues and opportunities regarding internal and external environmental analysis reflect respective issues and opportunities for Jeans Rare Books, new to the publishing industry. Advancement in technologies is the first major issue that forces the company to carry out the technology as per the customers current demand in this business environment. The highly competitive market will be good practice for Jeans rare find books company to implement a strategy plan that meets the needs of both the company and the stakeholders. SWOTT analysis looks at the issues and the opportunities that Jeans Rare Book Company will. Opportunities and resources from publishing companies will help business expansions increasing market shares and promotes the business toward growth and success. The most common use of SWOT analysis is as a logical framework guiding discussion and reflection about a firms situation and basic alternatives. This often takes place as a series of managerial group discussions (Pearce Robinson, 2009, p. 160, Para 3). Circumstances and Importance Classification Circumstances vary in the workforce; consider technological advancement the business may have issues with various changes and upgrades involving computer systems. Various changes and upgrades involving computer systems is very important for a new business, such as Jeans Rare Books to have a solid strategy plan in place. The company can get a clearer understanding of the weaknesses, threats, strengths, and opportunities to satisfy the customers demands. SWOTT is commonly used today in businesses across the country. It is a good practice, and learning point for a new business like Jeans rare find books to implement their long-term goals for the company. External Factors Factors Strength Weakness Opportunity Threat Trend Economic Cuts down on tax burden Fluctuations in economic conditions Expansion and growth opportunities Economic turnover Regular phenomenon that affects the long-term business performance Technological Helps run day-to-day operations Problems in technology create slow down in work Improved customer relations Reduced satisfaction level of customers Promotes company to furnish service is efficient way Facilitates in effective strategy formulation Lack of vital information Easy competition with the competitors Unable to concentrate on other requisites Conduct at quarterly periods Internal Factors Resources Availability helps to achieve goals in cost- effective way Delay of resources can cause harm to business Adequate allocation can attract more customers Unavailability can result in losses to company because of supply and demand Culture Good business cultures helps in reaching competitive advantage With modern staff company can grow easily and attract business Different cultures could affect day-to- day business In todays businesses much, consideration is given to cultural environment. Availability to a younger market

The Widening Scope Of Information Systems Information Technology Essay

The Widening Scope Of Information Systems Information Technology Essay In this literature review work has been carried out in my chosen field by concerning different books, electronic journals and other web resources to conduct this literature review. Introduction to Information Technology The term information technology is widely used to describe an industry; in reality by information technology I mean the use of different hardware and software for protecting, assembling, utilizing and controlling information. The use of computers and different software for information management is also refers as MIS, management information system or just information system in different companies. Large companys MIS are responsible to carry out following activities:- Storing information Protecting information Processing the information Transmitting the information as necessary Retrieving information as necessary To accomplish its complex task Information technology department is required to utilize computers, computers, servers, database management systems, and cryptography. The modern IT department would be comprised of several System Administrators, Database Administrators and at least one Information Technology Manager. Normally the whole team is suppose to report to the Chief Information Officer (CIO). Source : MSc Information Systems Computing. Latest Theory Meets Latest Technology. www.Brunel.ac.uk/IS The widening scope of information systems According to Lauden Laudon,( 2004) The widening scope of information system is the new relationship between organization and information system, there is a growing interdependence between business strategy, rules and procedures, on one hand and information system software, hardware, database and telecommunications on another. A change in any of these components often requires change in other component. These relationships become critical when management plan for future. What a business would like to do five years often depends on what its systems will be able to do. Increasing market share becoming high-quality or low -cost procedure, developing new procedures and increasing employee productivity depends more on the kinds and quality of information systems in the organization. A second change in relationship between information system and organization results from the growing reach and scope of system projects and application. Building and managing system today involves a much larger part of the organization than it did in the past .as the firm become more like digital firms the system enterprise extends to customer, vendors and even industry competitors. where early systems produced largely technical changes that effected only a few people in the firm .contemporary systems have been bringing about managerial changes (who has what information about whom when, and how often)and institutional core changes (what product and services are produces ,under what conditions ,and by whom)as companies move towards digital firm organization ,nearly all the firms managers and employees as Ill as customers and vendors-participates in a variety of firm systems tied together by a digital information web. for instance ,what a customer does on a firms web site can trigger a n employee to make an on the spot pricing decision or alert a firms suppliers of potential stock out situations. Approaches of Technology Lauden Laudon,( 2004) has presented two approaches to describe IT systems ;- Technological approach: the technological approach to information system emphasizes mathematically, based models to study information system, as Ill as the physical technology and formal capabilities of these systems. The disciplines that contribute to the technical approach are computer science, management science and operations research. Computer science is concerned with establishing theories of computability, methods of efficient data storage and access .management science emphasizes the development of models for decisions making and management practice. Operations research focuses .on mathematical techniques for optimizing selected parameters of organization such as transportation, inventory control and transaction cost. Behavioral approach: an important part of the information systems field is concerned with behavioral issues that arise in the development and long term maintains of information systems. Issues such as strategic business integration, design, implementation, utilization and management cannot be explored usefully with the method used in the technical approach .other behavioral disciplines contribute important concepts and method. I-E sociologist study information system with eye towards how groups and organization shape the development of system and also how system affects the individuals groups and organizations. Psychological study information systems with an interest in how humans decision maker perceive and use formal information. Economist study information system with an interest I what impact system have on control and cost structures within the firm and within markets. (Lauden Laudon) The behavioral approach does not ignore technology .indeed information system technology is often the stimulus for a behavioral problem or issue .but the focus of this approach is generally not on technical solution .instead in concentrates on change in attitude ,management and organization policy and behavior . IT Production Global market Information technology is software producing sector, hence it possess greater potential for brightening up the economy of any country. It is evident fact that IT has a unique cost structure, I all are aware of the fact that producing information is an expensive act but reproducing information in extremely inexpensive. This leads towards attaining extraordinary economies of scale and increasing returns to investment. Tremendous export opportunity exists in world global market for this labor intensive industrys products. This industry has rapidly found a place in global market and progressively increasing its share. From 1997 the information technology has expanded its market has significantly. International penetration of software exports is expected to increase by 200 percent over the coming few years. Offshore tailored applications and packaged applications to the United States and Europe will be influential factors that supported and lead this growth, USs market place possess more than half of the consulting chances. Due to soft nature of domestic markets, several IT firms seek to get place in international market. Presently in the Middle East, most IT spending goes to Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP) (about 60-70%). Somewhere between $ 100-200 million is also spent by GCC countries alone a year on ERP. Moreover, Customer Relationship Management (CRM) solutions have become an important and critical success factor in this business CRM applications are expected to witness a sharp rise in the next few years, especially among banking, telecomm, and utilities sectors (American Chamber 2000). There exist a large room for capitalist and opportunist to take considerable advantage of current situation. It is also counted among very important industries in the Indian economy. The IT industry of India has registered huge growth in recent years. Indias IT industry grew from 150 million US Dollars in 1990-1991 to a whopping 50 billion UD Dollars in 2006-2007. In the last ten years the Information Technology industry in India has grown at an average annual rate of 30%. Source : Nagla Rizk , 2001, Information Technology and Growth publication of The American University in Cairo: web source: http://www.luc.edu/orgs/meea/volume4/RizkRevised.htm)

Free Grapes of Wrath Essays: Steinbecks Style :: Grapes Wrath essays

Analysis of Style of The Grapes Of Wrath  Ã‚  Ã‚     John Steinbeck’s The Grapes Of Wrath is a moving novel, full of richly metaphorical language.   His writing style often evokes deep emotions, as it does in the passage reprinted below, by creating a clear picture in your mind of what he’s trying to say.   In this selection, he enforces a strong image in the reader’s mind: you cannot escape your past, which will be with you no matter where you go or what you do.   This message is enforced through a combination of wit and style in his writing that is rarely found among literary works.       But you can’t start.   Only a baby can start.   You and me—why, we’re all that’s been.   That anger of a moment, the thousand pictures, that’s us.   This land, this red land, is us; and the flood years and the drought years are us.   We can’t start again.   The bitterness we sold to the junk man—he got it all right, but we have it still.   And when the owner man told us to go, that’s us; and when the tractor hit the house, that’s us until we’re dead.   To California or any place—every one a drum major leading a parade of hurts, marching with our bitterness.   And some day—the armies of bitterness will all be going the same way.   And they’ll all walk together and there’ll be a dead terror from it.  Ã‚  Ã‚   (ch. 9, p. 11)    An important point that Steinbeck tries to deliver is the significance of memory.   â€Å"The bitterness we sold to the junk man—he got it all right, but we have it still.†Ã‚   Despite having rid themselves of the physical presence of reminders of past woes, the mental image and pain still remain.   Just because there isn’t anything around to provide evidence of something happening doesn’t mean that it will go away.   â€Å"You and me—why, we’re all that’s been,† he wrote—people are defined by their experiences as memories, not by what is around them.   One’s character is shaped from within, by his mind and his thoughts, not what he surrounds himself with in the external world. Steinbeck’s word choice has a very significant impact on the effectiveness of his writing.   By using words and phrases like â€Å"junk man,† â€Å"dead terror,† and the repetition of the words â€Å"bitterness† and â€Å"dead,† he drives his point home in a very matter-of-fact sort of way.

Adrian is currently running Gunner Pass with no other employees. So he :: Business and Management Studies

Adrian is currently running Gunner Pass with no other employees. So he does not need to use ICT to communicate between departments. Gunner Pass. 2 Describe the type of work done in functional areas of Gunner Pass. 2 Describe how ICT is used within these functional areas of Gunner Pass. 3 Explain how the functional areas help to achieve the aims of Gunner Pass. 3 Explain how ICT helps Gunner Pass work together 4 Analyse how effectively the functional areas work together to achieve the aims of Gunner Pass 4 Suggest how and possible improvements or developments in ICT might help the functional areas work together more effectively. 5 Cummins UK.. 6 Describe the type of work done in the functional areas of Cummins. 6 Describe how ICT is used within these functional areas of Cummins. 7 Explain how the functional areas help to achieve the aims of Cummins. 7 Explain how ICT helps Cummins work together 8 Analyse how effectively the functional areas work together to achieve the aims of Cummins 8 Suggest how and possible improvements or developments in ICT might help the functional areas to work together more effectively. 8 Gunner Pass Describe the type of work done in functional areas of Gunner Pass A function in a business is the area of activity in the business. Adrian is a sole trader. As Adrian currently doesn’t employ anyone, he must run all the functions in a business. The functions in business are: marketing and sales, customer service, production and operations, human resources, finance, administration and ICT. Some sole traders will have an employee who in specialised or skilled in a certain area, such as a sole trader may have a marketing and sales manager. Adrian works on his own so he as to do work in all these areas of his business. In a normal working day, Adrian does work in more than one function of his business. He writes out adverts, designs new leaflets, this would be marketing and sales. When he pays cheques into the bank, or pays out insurance on his vehicle, that is in the Finance department. When Adrian receives a call from a new customer, and the customer wants to know the services and prices he offers. Then that is in the Customer Services department. All the areas are needed to keep Gunner Pass running. Finance: Consists of paying bills and receiving payments. Adrian must keep a record of his expenditure and his incomings. He does this because he never earns the same amount of money each month. He receives a tax statement at the end of each year. By doing this he will be able to calculate his net profit per month/year.

Are School Uniforms Beneficial or Not? Essay -- Argumentative Educati

Are School Uniforms Beneficial or Not? (â€Å"Quotes about Uniform Policy† 1). Theodore R. Mitchell, UCLA School of Education says, "I think its great news for all of us who have advocated school uniforms as a way of building community.† A pressing issue, bullying has become a big problem in many school, and to eliminate this problem, school policies should require students to wear uniforms. Many people believe that school uniforms build the community into a safer, more positive environment. School uniforms improve school academics, prevent gang violence, and assist families, who can not afford expensive clothing. Worrying more about others, rather than themselves, students pay more attention to the appearance of their peers instead of their academics. To begin, if school uniforms became apart of the school policy, students’ academics would improve phenomenally. Hanley noted that â€Å"The reason for the policy [was] to further improve ascending test scores and provide a safe, comfortable learning environment† (A1+). Clearly, school administrators wanted to improve test scores, and they figured if students dressed the same, then they would have no other choice but to focus on their school work. If the students can concentrate on their school work, then they will have high self- esteem. Furthermore, Valdez believes that school uniforms, positively, will change student academics: â€Å"†¦ [they] decrease self consciousness and increase self esteem...† (14). Reasonable and realistic, students who feel better about themselves will succeed in school rather than those who have poor self-esteem. Not only do school uniforms encourage students to have a better attitude about themselves, but they also change the environment in which students learn.... ...Print. Hanley, Kipp. â€Å"At Middle School, a uniform solution?† McClatchy-Tribune Business News. 4 Oct 2009: A1+. Sirs Knowledge Source. Proquest LLC. Web. 8 Nov 2010. Mitchell, Theodore R. â€Å"Quotes about Uniform Policy.† Lbschools.net. LBUSD. 2010. Long Beach Unified School District. Web. 15 Nov 2010. Soloman, Louis K. â€Å"Schools Smarten Up Without Uniforms.† Sun Sentinel 30 Jun 2004: A1+. Sirs Knowledge Source. Proquest. Web. 11 Nov 2010. Stephens, Daniel. â€Å"School Dress Codes are Necessary and Constitutional.† Student Rights May 2001: 12-16. Gale. North Caroline Family Policy. Web. 9 Nov 2010. Synder, Susan. â€Å"Shirts Tucked in, Cell Phones Out: School Rules are Changing.† Philadelphia Inquirer 24 Sept 2004: A1+. Sirs Knowledge Source. Proquest LLC. Web. 8 Nov 2010. Valdez, Al. How Can Gang Violence be Prevented? San Clemente: Law Tech, 2005. Print.

The Extent of Fidel Castro’s Achievement of His Aims

To what extent was Fidel Castro able to achieve his aims between 1959 and 1979, and what prevented him from achieving more? During Fulgencio Batista’s reign in Cuba, Fidel Castro had insistently professed his dissatisfaction with the government, and when he finally took over in 1959, he effected a government that formed the basis from which the criticism of many historians today derives. To a minimal extent, Fidel Castro was able to achieve his aims between 1959 and 1979. Revealed in the 26th of July Movement’s doctrine, Castro’s goals called for Cuba to become fully independent and purely democratic while having a just society.Castro’s goals were hindered not only by the dependence on the U. S. , but also on the Soviet Union after relations with the U. S. intensified. By the end of his reign, Castro had not upheld his initial revolutionary ideology; therefore, he did not achieve his aims for Cuba to the greater extent. In one of his aims, Castro hoped to see Cuba become independent. In order to become less dependent on foreign countries, Castro implemented an economic reform that would allow Cuba to become less dependent on the foreign countries. He wanted to create a more centralized economy by confiscating businesses, many of which were American-owned.The U. S. saw this attempt of nationalization as a direct challenge to their interests, thus they removed the sugar quota placed an embargo on Cuba, threatening to destroy the base of the Cuban economy. Cuba had now become independent from U. S. trade, but with no means self-sufficiency, Cuba turned to another group–the socialist/communist nations in the eastern hemisphere. Cuba had increased their sugar production tremendously because of Castro’s speech, â€Å"The Year of Decisive Endeavor,† in 1963 which set a production goal of 10 million tons of sugar by 1970 so that Cuba could industrialize and become more self-reliant.USSR began buying this Cuban sugar in r eturn for industrial equipment and machinery which allowed Castro to develop their countries as allies. Germany also agreed to sell the industrial necessities needed by Cuba. During these early 1960 years, Cuba quickly lost nearly all economic dependence on the U. S. , but any progress toward self-sufficiency was undermined by the developing relationship with the Soviet Union. Unlike the U. S. , the Soviet Union was not hostile to the idea of an independent Cuba and was willing to defend Cuban interest.In reality, Castro might have professed his devotion to socialism in his Marxist-Leninist speech only for the benefit of siding with the world’s socialist superpowers for military and economic support. Castro’s favoring paid off because the Soviet Union placed nuclear missiles in Cuba in 1962; however, this caused U. S. -Soviet tensions to peak when the U. S. made the threat of invading Cuba. Castro also attempted to establish Cuba’s independence by making the cha nge to a Communist state, which began distinguished officially in 1965.Although the changes were small in the early 1960s, it was not until 1976 that Cuba created a new constitution. Another aspect proving Cuban independence was the buildup of a strong military force from foreign intervention and internal opposition. Castro suspected the U. S. of military action because of their discontent with his socialist policies. Nearing the end of the first decade of his reign, Castro revealed that Cuba did not meet the 10 million ton harvest, but welcomed the shame and criticism that the failure would bring about.Throughout the years of Castro’s reign, he strived to assert Cuba as an independent nation, as demonstrated with the victory in the Bay of Pigs Invasion; however, he never fully accomplished this aim, continuing to depend on their monoculture and export-oriented economy. Castro's objective for Cuba was to uphold an uncorrupted, democratic nation. However many of his actions pr ove his ideology wrong. Within the early months after he overthrew Batista, Castro made a decision with other revolutionaries to pass the Fundamental Law of the Republic in February of 1959.By passing this legislature he gave himself more legislative power as executive of the country, adding to his power to veto due to his rank as Executive of Army. Jose Cardona was replaced from his job as Head of Legislature which allowed Castro to basically become a dictator–the opposite of a democracy. The people of Cuba lost their freedoms that citizens should have in a democracy. The government began redistributing income from the urban to the rural working class. Although it created successes such as a raise in wages, a raise in purchasing power, and a decrease in unemployment, incomes were still not all equal.Land became another freedom of the people that the government decided to take away and redistribute. Large plantation estates called Latifundios were outlawed and limited to 995 acres with the Agrarian Reform Law. The INRA enforced the ARL which hurt large American owned companies like Coca Cola and Hershey’s, contributing more animosity from the U. S. Along with the Second Law of Agrarian Reform in 1963, both reforms created an agricultural system that did not produce the same amount of crop as they did pre-1959 until the late 1960s.After forming the Constitution in 1976, Castro made a government that was not very efficient and could silence any complaint with the â€Å"red tape† effect. By reorganizing the government into the military, executive committee, and communist party, the constitution made the Cuban bureaucracies contributing to a more authoritarian-like government. More and more, Castro nationalized Cuba in every aspect and Castro, having achieved an economic stability, made a Communistic dictatorship; therefore, he did not achieve his goal for a democracy in Cuba since his own regime was corrupt.Another goal that Castro had for Cu ba from 1959 to 1979 was to create a just society. One way Castro made this society was by targeting the needs of the people and providing them with an education and healthcare system. One of the biggest issues during Castro’s reign was the country’s lack of educated revolutionaries because most of the trained workers and professionals emigrated from the island. In his 1961 speech Castro proclaimed that this year would be the â€Å"Year of Education. † To some extent he did achieve this aspect of providing immediate literacy which rose from 76% to 94% in 1979.Other improvements occurred up through this first decade of Castro’s reign such as recruiting 100,000 students, the tripling of teachers, and quadrupling of schools. However, Castro did create a curriculum that would not only provide an education limited to only basic reading and writing but also indoctrinate students with the loyalty and morals of Communism. Vilma Espin, the head of The Cuban Womenà ¢â‚¬â„¢s Federation, advocated for literacy rates in the female population while also pushing for education and healthcare as well. Through Espin’s work, Castro realized that it was larger issue, thus he passed the Family Code.This law mandated equality in marriage and legitimized divorce. This law was never really enforced but women were generally happy with the gain. Gender and racial equality was an issue with which no other country in Latin America had dealt. Castro also stressed the need for a healthcare system in Cuban society in order to create a just society. His system would implement a method that trained doctors in universities around the country. Because of forming of education and healthcare systems, Castro’s aim for social justice in Cuba was achieved to some extent.Castro was not able to uphold his ideology because limited reasons. The chief reason that may have hindered him from achieving more is the on-going tensions with the U. S. and the economic con sequences from this. If the U. S. did not have the discontent toward Cuba’s regime, Cuba would have developed the revolutionized economy that they sought. If Castro had developed relations with the U. S. and given up the socialist policies, Cuba would have avoided severe U. S. tensions and the embargo altogether. The U. S. embargo on Cuba was a major influence that hindered economic prosperity and diversified agriculture.Castro focused on manipulate Cuba from his revolutionary political aims in the 26th of July Movement. Initially, he attempts to create Cuba in the ideology of a system of social justice within the broadest concept of democracy, of freedom and of human rights. Throughout his reign Castro enacted laws and promoted policies in order to create this fully independent and democratic Cuba with a just society. To the least extent, Castro fulfilled this vision during the first two decades of the revolution, and on-going tensions with the U. S. prevented Castro from ex tending his revolutionary aim.

Organization and Behaviour Essay

Contents 1. Compare and contrast different organisational structures and culture 2. Explain how the relationship between an organisation’s structure and culture can impact on the performance of the business 3. Discuss the factors that influence the individual’s behaviour at work 4. Compare the effectiveness of different leadership styles in different organisations 5. Explain how organisational theory underpins the practice of management 6. Evaluate the different approaches to management used by different organisations 7. Discuss the impact that different leadership styles may have on motivation in organisations in periods of change 8. Compare the application of different motivational theories within the workplace 9. Evaluate the usefulness of a motivation theory for managers 10. Explain the nature of groups and group behaviour within organisations 11. Discuss factors that may promote or inhibit the development of effective teamwork in organisations 12. Evaluate the impact of technology on team functioning within a given organisation P1: Compare and contrast different organisational structures and culture. Organisational structure: There are different types of organisational structures. There is the Functional structure which is based on the activities that people do in the organisation then the Product based structure, when the product determines the structure, the Geographically based structure when the location determines the structure and the last one is the Matrix structure (segregation) which is the combination of functions (activities) and product. Organisational culture: Is the values and behaviours that contribute to the unique social and psychological, Organisational culture is the sum of an organisation past and current experiences, philosophy and values that hold it together and is expressed in its self-image. The organisational structure focuses on the mentality, work ethic and the values of the company’s management and employees. The main factors that influence the structure of an organisation are products, environment, staff, task, culture and management style, size number and type of dept. A culture of innovation, teamwork and partnership means that the company has a firm foundation of relationships and open communication channels on which to build its growth. A major determinant of an organisations structure is its culture. The general nature of culture in terms of both external influences and how things are done as well as common values, belief and attitude will have a significant effect on organisational processes including the design of structure. P2: Based on the scenario given explain how the relationship between an organisation’s structure and culture can impact on the performance of the business. The way the Coca cola company works reflects the many countries and cultures in which it does business. An essential part of the organisation’s structure therefore focuses on ensuring that individual products are given the best possible support in regional markets. Within the company different teams concentrate on particular products and use their specialist knowledge of the brands and consumer needs to support the sales and promotional effort. In some cases a product is developed solely for local consumption and an example of this is the product Lilt, which is only available in Great Britain and Ireland. A structure depends on the organization’s objectives and strategy. In a centralized structure, the top layer of the management has most of the decision making power and has tight control of departments and divisions. In a decentralized structure, the decisions making power is distributed and the departments and divisions have different degrees of independence. A company such Coca-Cola Great Britain is a more centralized structure that has a corporate (Head office) that is responsible for giving the company an overall direction and providing support to the regional structure. P3: Discuss the factors which influence individual behaviour at work. Organisations are made up of their individual members. The individual in a central feature of organisational behaviour whether acting in isolation or as part of a group in response to expectations of the organisation or as a result of the influences of the external environment. Where the needs of the individual and the demands of the organisation as incompatible this can result in frustration and conflict. It is the role of management to integrate the individual and the organisation and to provide a working environment that permits the satisfaction of individual needs as well as the attainment of organisational goals. The first factor to consider is the location. The organisation has to think about how they can improve the environment so that the staff will remain motivated at work. A good location and environment helps to create a positive attitude to staff and customers. Another factor is the amount of working hours. Hours of work are extremely different throughout the industry- some people are happy to work unsocial hours because it fits with their lifestyle or they wish to have time off when everyone is working. On the other hand, the overall amount of hours per week should not go over 40 hours. If staff are working overtime consistently it will not influence them to come into work so it is important that all hours of work is balanced. Safety and security factors must be considered in the workplace, and legislation such as Health and Safety at Work Act 1974 must be adhered to. These regulations particular apply where food is served or where there are chemical hazards, for example in a swimming pool. All these requirements are important. For some organisations a little error in the safety procedures can mean the end of the business including a trial. Companies that organise activity holidays for children, for example Disney Land, Thorpe Park or London Dungeon, must make health and safety a priority. Health and safety is important for both customers and employees. When employees know that they can go about their work in safe environment and work together to ensure their customers are safe then this could also influence them because they will know that they are working in a safe environment. Most Companies organise Christmas parties or social events and outings for staff. These are useful to create a friendship amongst staff and help influence staff to build solid teams within the organisation. Good pay may is also another factor as staff like to see that their hard work has paid off. P4: Compare the effectiveness of the different leadership styles in two or more organisations of your choice. Management in an organisation is about influencing people to behave in positive ways so that the team can achieve its general goal. A good manager must inform, motivate and develop the team as a whole. An autocratic manager makes all the decisions and announces them to the team. This person is the boss and has full control. The main advantage of this kind of leadership is that decisions are made quickly, as no meeting will be held about the decisions made by the leader. The advantages that could motivate staff include: * Where there is a need for urgent action the autocrat will take control * Some team members gain security from being told what to do. The disadvantages are: * Team members may become frustrated at their lack of control * There may not be room for the team to express creativity * There may be over-dependence on the leader. Autocratic management belongs in a traditional hierarchical structure. Democratic management: With democratic management, the decision-making is shared among the team. The advantages include: * Ideas are encouraged from everyone * There is greater involvement and commitment from team members * The team is likely to be supportive of leader * The team is fully informed. The disadvantages include: * Some team members may not be able to cope with being involved in decision-making * The democratic process can take too long * The leader may not agree with the decision of the team * Powerful team member may take over. P5: Explain how organisational theory underpins the practice of management. Organisational theory: Organisational theory represents a young and complex field of study related to the behaviour of organisations and companies. Through particular methods like analysis, generalisations and observation, organisation theory specialists try to determine how companies and organisations will behave in certain situations. (http://www.publicorgtheory.org/organization-theory.html) The way the organisational theory underpins the practice of management is by bringing change to actual behaviour. It can influence the manager’s behaviour which can be observed in the ideas portrayed or conclusions. It is important as it helps give insight to interrelationships between the development of theory, behaviour in organisations and management practice. It also gives an understanding of the development of management thinking. The knowledge of the history helps in the understanding of the nature of management and organisational behaviour. Many of the earlier ideas are of continuing importance to the manager and later ideas in management tend to incorporate early ideas of conclusions. P6 & P7: Using an organisation of your choice evaluate the different approaches to management. Discuss the impact that different leadership styles may have on motivation in organisation in periods of change. The organisation that I will be evaluating is Tesco which is a PLC (Public Limited Company). I will be talking about the different approaches to management. There is a difference between management and leadership. Management is about getting things done. Managers organise human and physical resources to achieve business aims and objectives. Leadership is about influencing, motivating and inspiring people. It is about coaching and developing people, treating them with respect but challenging them. Leaders seek to create strong teams, with people committed to the organisation’s overall goals. The process of managing starts with the target or objective to be achieved. A manager must decide on the appropriate approach for reaching that target. The manager then needs to communicate this approach clearly to his or her team and to allocate tasks to each team member. Task allocation and delegation of responsibility is part of the management function. However, other factors will also have an influence on whether the target is achieved, including the task in hand, the skills of the team and the style of leadership. The style of leadership can vary depending on the task. Some managers allow teams to take charge of their own decision-making for many tasks. Team leaders will set the objectives but empower team members to decide how these objectives are achieved. This has several advantages. It helps to motivate individuals in the team and it draws on the expertise of the members of the team. The leadership style that Tesco store managers sit between autocratic and democratic both th ese styles allow staff to participate to an extent. However the manager has the right to reserve the final decision. Managers who lead using the autocratic leadership style often tend to give clear direction to staff and are good in terms of managing a crisis but this method does not allow team member to be heard and creative. On the other hand a democratic manager will consult with staff before making his final decision this style of leadership helps encourage staff to put forward ideas and increases motivation. Some manager will adopt leadership styles in which are appropriate to the situation. Most managers prefer to take a democratic approach as they feel that staff respond better to this approach. For example when planning a major stock reduction programme at Tesco the store manager may encourage other management within the store to put forward ideas and develop plans as said before this increases team motivation and encourages creativity. Although some mistakes may be made this can be put forward as a learning experience. However as a store manager they may deal with many different situations. Some may be business critical and it is important that the manager is able to respond to these situations in the most appropriate manner. In some situations the manager may need to adapt the leadership approach and exert more authority. Laissez-faire is at the other end of the field from autocratic. A laissez-faire manager takes a ‘hands-off’ approach and trusts teams to take appropriate decisions or actions with broad agreed boundaries. For example, a store manager might leave an experienced departmental manager to develop a budget. This could be because he trusts that the manager has a good knowledge of the needs of the department and of the business. Although each manager will have their own preferred leadership style, the most effective leaders take on a style that is appropriate depending on the situation. They will consider several factors such as: * The task – Is it business critical? Must a decision be made immediately? What will be the potential impact on the business? * The team – Does it have the right skills and resources? Is it used to making decisions? * Tradition – What has been the norm in the past? For example, a manager that uses a more authoritarian style if something needs achieving in a particular way or in a very quick timeframe. Sometimes budgets need to be reduced quickly in order to make cost savings. The store manager will tell departmental managers what needs to be done and by when so that they can then resubmit their budgets in line with expectations. Managers have to be aware of the possible consequences of using the wrong style in a particular situation. For example, a manager will not use a laissez-faire approach with a new member of the team. If the employee is not given proper instruction this could jeopardise the business. In some cases employees could be injured if they don’t use the equipment correctly. In this situation, it is essential to adopt an autocratic style. P8: Compare the application of different motivational theories within the workplace. Theories of motivation Maslow America 1940, Abraham Maslow developed a theory of motivation. The theory is suitable for trying to understand how people are motivated in the workplace. Employers can use it to provide conditions that fulfil people’s needs at the different levels. Maslow’s theory is displayed as a pyramid because employees can only move up the levels once the lower levels are fulfilled. So for example an employee cannot achieve at work (level 4) if they having problems in their personal life or with work colleagues like in (level 3). Similarly, if they have just been made homeless (level) their concern will be finding shelter not performing work, meaning people have to be satisfied with their own needs and their life before even being motivated to do work. Herzberg Herzberg’s theory is also known as the ‘Hygiene’ theory. Herzberg recognized features which make people happy and satisfied with their jobs and those which make them dissatisfied and unhappy he called the ‘satisfiers’ and ‘dissatisfies’. The ‘satisfiers’ are factors which give people continuing motivation and allow them to enjoy their work: * The type of work * Promotion prospects * Having responsibility * Sense of achievement * Personal development * Gaining recognition. The ‘dissatisfies’ or hygiene factors need to be operating well in an organisation but according to Herzberg do not ultimately motivate people. However, if they are unsatisfactory then they do de-motivate people. These are: * Salary * Working conditions * Relationships with others – colleagues and managers * Company policy P9: Evaluate the usefulness of a motivation theory for managers. The motivational theory is useful for managers because of the practical implications it has on individuals lacking in motivation, which in most cases do not have clear goals. Specific performance should systematically be identified and set in order to direct behaviour and maintain motivation. Goals should be set at a challenging but realistic level. Difficult goals lead to higher performances however if goals are set too high a level or regarded as impossible to achieve this can lead to stress and performance will suffer especially over a longer period. It is assumed that complete accurate and timely feedback and knowledge of results is usually associated with high performance. Feedback provides a means of checking progress of goal attainment and forms the basis of any revision of goals. Although goals can be determined either by a superior or by individuals themselves goals set by other people are more likely to be accepted when there is participation. Employee participation in the setting of goals may lead to higher performance P10: Explain the nature of groups and group behaviour within organisations Group work: Good groups achieve synergy; that is, together they can achieve more than the members could individually. More ideas, energy and resources are made as a group because: * The group solves problems and make decisions together * The group focuses on priorities, with everyone working towards the same aim * The group provides a sense of belonging and sense of status * The group provides a support network Not everyone in a group is the same – each person has their own strengths and weaknesses. If each person had the same weaknesses, the group could not work; there needs to be a balance of skills. A method of recognising individuals’ strengths and weaknesses is needed in order to build and effective team. The management expert R. Meredith Belbin has outlined nine team roles necessary for successful team. Belbin’s roles: C hairperson/co-ordinator – the group leader, likely to be relaxed and outgoing person, also likely to be a good communicator. They will build on the strengths of team members and give them encouragement. Plant – the ideas person in the team, a person who is creative in looking for solutions to problems, but not always good at details, and so may make careless mistakes. Shaper – the task leader, who unites ideas and effort. Needs to be dominant and outgoing person in order to make things happen. Monitor/evaluator – the team analyst, who is not so good at ideas but pays attention to detail, therefore keeping the team directed towards its target. Implementer – the organiser of the team, who is able to take the ideas of the plant and shaper and turn them into manageable and realistic tasks, a practical, stable and disciplined person.   Resource investigator – the person who is outgoing and will explore and report on ideas and developments outside the group; this person always has a solution to problems, is sociable and enthusiastic, and good under pressure. Team worker – a very people-oriented person, sensitive to others’ needs. The team worker has good communication skills and will be good at motivating others. A natural mediator, who will deal with any conflict within the team, this person is very good to have around in a crisis. Finisher – a person who sticks to deadlines and likes to get on with things. Will probably be irritated by the more relaxed members of the team. Specialist – this person is single-minded and a self-starter, and provides knowledge and skills in specialist areas. Each of Belbin’s roles acquires a different level of importance according to the objectives of the team and the stage in the team’s life. P11: Discuss factors that may promote or inhibit the development of effective teamwork in organisations. Team development: Formal teams are part of the structure of an organisation and are planned in order to meet that organisation’s objectives. The official team will follow rules and rules and may meet on a fixed schedule and complete administrative procedures. Examples of good practice in travel and tourism include sales teams and marketing teams. Informal teams work within or outside formal teams. They are sometimes based on personal relationships between members rather than on work roles. When you complete group work for assignments, you often choose the colleagues you wish to work with. You choose to work with people you like and ones you know will be as committed as you are to the work. This as an informal team. There are several theories of team structure and development, which will help you to understand the effectiveness of teams. Bruce Tuckman (1965) identified four main stages of team development: Forming – at this stage, team members from their first impressions of each other establish identities. They are sounding each other out and finding out what is expected of them.   Storming – the team members have, by now, become more used to each other. Members are prepared to put forward their ideas forcibly and openly; they are also prepared to disagree and so there may be some conflict and hostility. Norming – the team now begins to establish co-operation. Conflict is controlled, views are exchanged and new standards introduced.   Performing – the team is now working together; it begins to arrive at solutions and achieve objectives. There can also be fifth stage, called ‘adjourning’ or ‘mourning’, where the team has disbanded and the members miss being part of the team. Benefits of team work to colleagues and customers and organisation. The benefit of team work to colleagues is that they get to be confident and have a great self-esteem. Working together makes them communicate well with each other it also makes them makes the right decisions. British Airways staffs respects and trust their teams they all have their clear roles and responsibilities, they support each other in their job, when their team member does not know what they are doing they help one and other out. Their customers are always happy with their service and this gives their company a positive image. British Airways spend a lot of money training their staffs to help their team works together at the end of the day they make a lot of profits. Job roles and lines of responsibility: An organisation chart shows the structure of the company and how the work is divided into different areas. It also shows the lines of responsibility between staff, so that it is apparent who is responsible to whom. An employee studying a chart will find the possible promotion routes. The chart may show a hierarchical structure or line relationship. This is a very traditional structure and shows a chain of command with each person responsible to the person above them. It is sometimes referred to as a pyramid structure. Many organisations today would be depicted in a chart with a flatter structure. There are fewer layers of management, and each manager has a broader span of control. Restructuring of organisations often involves getting rid of middle managers, hence the flattened structure. P12: Evaluate the impact of technology in team functioning within a given organisation.   In this modern day and age the use of IT is very important because of modern technology, and this is also part of some peoples working lives. Same thing is applicable to travel and tourism sector. for most jobs or roles you would IT skills like the uses of databases, spreadsheets and email system and be able to use the word processor as well as skills explicit to a role. For example people working in an airline reservation team will get trained on how to make bookings and reservation systems such as Galileo or Amadeus. In a tourist information centre you would need to be able to access the sites and use the software that provides timetables and local information. Thomas Cook Thomas Cook has an intranet ‘Get in Touch’ facility, to which all staff have access. There is also a dedicated e-mail address for staff to send feedback direct to UK chief executive Manny Fontenla-Novoa. A spokeswoman added: â€Å"we issue an annual staff questionnaire to gain a temperature check on morale and motivation within the company’. Thomas Cook also runs panel sessions – made up of a cross-selection of the business – which are held regularly to provide feedback on new ideas and marketing initiatives. Other internal forms of communication include a quarterly magazine and monthly videos for stores. Electric: Electric communications for internal use include e-mail, which is a popular way for staff to communicate with one other, and intranets. An intranet is a website that has restricted access, usually for employees only. It may hold information that a company wishes to share internally but not externally. Working in a team will also motivate staff to interact and also learn skills off their peers because one person can represent more than one role, as most people have strengths in more than one area. References/Bibliography http://www.publicorgtheory.org/organization-theory.html http://businesscasestudies.co.uk/tesco/developing-appropriate-leadership-styles/management-and-leadership.html#ixzz2HxoCDjYE Management & Organisational behaviour by Laurie J. Mullins (Ninth edition)